This essay began as an exploration of the qualities of leadership exemplified by Joshua. It is written by a student of the Bible and its ancient Near Eastern context. Therefore, the emphasis on ethics that emerged in the study are intended to provide a starting point for the discussion; based as they are on exegesis of the Hebrew text, rather than on an approach that begins from the perspective of ethics and looks for examples in the biblical text.
When I was asked to address the matter of leadership, and especially military ethics and leadership, as modeled in the Old Testament, it seemed natural to consider the figure of Joshua. He appears as the successor to Moses and as someone specifically charged with leading the people of Israel to achieve their divinely given inheritance by destroying the forts that stand in their way and the armies that come against them. Furthermore, his role in the development of the Old Testament canon has been seen as a prototype of later Israelite kings who were considered righteous in their deeds and who engaged in wars of defense as well as offense.
Consider this last point. As Nelson (1981) has demonstrated, the figure of Joshua in the book that bears his name serves as a literary model upon which the life of Josiah, the last great king of Jerusalem, is built. Although the biblical chronology would separate the two figures by more than half a millennium, Nelson (1997: 2-3) has no difficulty in discounting the historicity of the earlier warrior, "Hardly any of the material it preserves is of the sort that can be directly used for historical reconstruction." Although I have argued to the contrary elsewhere (Hess 1996), the importance of Joshua as a model for Josiah, both in the literary text of the Bible perhaps also in real life, cannot be gainsaid. Thus the selection of Joshua as an example of ethics in leadership is not limited to modern interpretation but also found during the Israelite monarchy.
The purpose of this essay will be to consider the characteristics of ethics and leadership exemplified by the figure of Joshua as he is introduced at the beginning of the book that bears his name. These characteristics are evident both in the presentation of Joshua at the beginning of his career of leadership and in the passing on of the position of leadership from Moses. In fact, the primary purpose of the first part of the book is to establish the figure of Joshua as a leader, not only appointed by God but also accepted by the people whom he leads.
It is the hope of this study to derive the principles of ethics and leadership that both established Joshua in a position of respect and also formed a key text for future rulers of the nation of Israel. For further background to the biblical text and commentary as discussed here, the reader may wish to consult Hess 1996.
I. The Need (v. 1)
After the death of Moses the servant of the LORD, the LORD said to Joshua son of Nun, Moses’ aide: (here and throughout the New International Version is used)
The first verse of the book of Joshua establishes the context and defines the need. The reference to Moses and his death connects this text to the events of the end of the previous biblical book, Deuteronomy (cf. 34: 5). It also demonstrates the need for a successor to Moses. The death of the great leader has created a power vacuum and that must be filled. The mention of Joshua and the note about his service for Moses as his assistant hints at the resolution to this problem. From the perspective of leadership, the important point is that the identification of a new leader proceeds from the need for a leader. Joshua does not step into an unnecessary position but an essential one that the death of the previous leader has created. Ethically, this precludes issues of the usurpation of power. Further, the reference to Joshua's preceding work with Moses (cf. the use of this term, Hebrew me≈År‰t (mesharet), for Joshua in Exod. 24: 13; 33: 11; and Num. 11: 28) suggests that the leader to be chosen has had experience and preparation for the task to be given to him. Although he has remained in the background until this point, his work with the previous leader qualifies him to fulfill the demands of the present situation.
II. The God-Given Vision (vv. 2-5)
“Moses my servant is dead. Now then, you and all these people, get ready to cross the Jordan River into the land I am about to give to them — to the Israelites. I will give you every place where you set your foot, as I promised Moses. Your territory will extend from the desert to Lebanon, and from the great river, the Euphrates — all the Hittite country — to the Great Sea on the west. No one will be able to stand up against you all the days of your life. As I was with Moses, so I will be with you; I will never leave you nor forsake you.
Vv. 2-5 constitute the first part of a speech that God directs toward Joshua. As presented here, the words form promises regarding the work of Joshua and the role he is to play as leader. Insofar as Joshua's accomplishment of this vision appears in the book, these four verses provide an outline of the whole book of Joshua and represent the key elements of his achievements as leader.
Following a second notice of Moses' death, as if to confirm that his successor can now commence his work, v. 2 describes. The inchoate command, "arise" (Hebrew qûm [qum]) precedes the more specific injunction to "cross over" the Jordan River. This statement summarizes the content of Josh. 1: 1 - 5: 12, where Israel prepares to cross the river, crosses it, and then performs ceremonies to its God upon the completion of this activity. The Hebrew term, "cross over," is ¸Åbar ('abar). It forms the key root that recurs as both nouns and verbs thirty-three times throughout this first part of the text. The term either describes the actual river crossing, such as in this verse, or it designates actions directly related to the crossing. The latter is true in v. 11 where Joshua commands his lieutenants to "pass over" through the people and command them to prepare to cross. Thus, like a leitmotif in music, this thematic expression (Martin Buber used the term, leitwort) ties together the whole of the first part of the book.
While this verse forms part of the divinely given promises of vv. 2-5 and therefore the land is promised to Joshua and Israel, it is also true that Joshua and his followers will need to take it for themselves. It is a gift that must be received and acted on in order to fully receive it. For Joshua, this provides the background to all ethical justification of the wars that follow. He does not initiate the decision to go into battle, but understands it as a divinely given instruction.
V. 3 summarizes the actual conquest account of Joshua 5: 13 - 12: 24. This is the best known part of the book, beginning with the conquest of Jericho, then Ai, and finally the broad sweeping campaigns against the southern and northern coalitions. Although none of these are explicitly mentioned, the phrase, "every place where the sole of your foot shall tread," complements the promise of the land and expectation of its occupation by Israel.
V. 4 continues the promises by summarizing the allotments of Joshua 13-21. Here the specific place names reflect broad areas of territory, as well as general borders that outline the land allotted in that chapter. The "wilderness," Hebrew midbÅr, is a term used to describe the region around Bethel and Ai and the desert to the south (Josh. 8: 15, 20; 12: 8; 15: 61; 16: 1; 18: 12). It would be the regions occupied by Benjamin, Judah, and Simeon. The "Lebanon" includes the northern area occupied by the tribe of Naphtali. The Euphrates forms a northeastern border as the Mediterranean or Western Sea forms a western one. Together this description identifies the land of Canaan as defined by the early sources in the Bible and also by second millennium B.C. Egypt (Hess 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b). This definition of Canaan and occurrences of the term with this meaning appear to be limited to the second millennium B.C. and thus provide evidence of an authentic antiquity for elements of the first chapter of Joshua. Ethically, specific territorial gains are detailed so that there is no question as to the extent of the area to be conquered. Neither more nor less of the territory is to be taken. Therefore, there is a clear goal set before the battles begin, and it is this goal that drives the warfare in the later chapters of the book.
V. 5 may be understood to reflect the final chapters of the book of Joshua. In particular, the phrase, "all the days of your life," looks far into the future to the end of Joshua's life, a time that chs. 23 and 24 specifically record. Further, the promise of God's presence provides important background to the covenant making ceremony described in the last chapter of the book. As will be seen below, the second half of v. 5 also attaches to vv. 6-9 so that the verse creates a hinge that concludes the promises and moves on to the next section. Again the military ethics of this text may be considered. Joshua has set a goal for the military forces of Israel. However, he has also been given a life plan for himself. The remainder of his days will be spent in achieving this goal and setting before the people a treaty or covenant of peace by which they will live. The warrior also has as his goal the making of peace.
The promise of God's presence may remind the careful reader of the same promise in Deut. 3: 21, made the last time that God addressed Joshua. The reference to "all the days of your life," evokes the use of the word, "all," Hebrew kØl (kol), that is found in each of vv. 2-5. It is used to describe "all" Israel, "every place," "all the land," and now "all" of Joshua's life. This repetition is key for understanding key theological themes in the book that translate into important ethical perspectives for leadership in the first chapter. There are to be no half measures. The whole generation must spend all it days in obeying God by occupying the whole of the land. The nation must not divide and this is the reason for Joshua's appeal to the tribes whose land lies east of the Jordan River in the last part of ch. 1. It must fully exert itself in obedience to God. The reason for the failure in the initial assault on Ai in ch. 6 would be the compromise of Achan, one Israelite who was not wholeheartedly supporting the campaign. Finally, God's people must occupy the whole of the land. The failure to do this is highlighted in Judges 1 and its consequences are developed in that book.
The promises that are given in these verses serve the purpose of encouraging Joshua and Israel to campaign by promising success as a reward for obedience. Together they constitute an exemplary vision of what a leader must do. By receiving these instructions at the beginning of his leadership career, Joshua was able to employ them in carrying out his work throughout the book. Thus this vision forms an important ethical ingredient in the Bible's portrayal of a successful leader. There must be clear direction and purpose in the leadership, a well defined goal. Without these there can be no effective leadership and the ethical questions of justification for battle and conquest remain ambiguous.
That this vision is given by the leader's God is no surprise in one sense. In the ancient world, the national deity often provided direction in terms of military conquest. There are numerous examples of oracles that define when and where to go to war in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. The distinction of Joshua 1: 2-5 is the detailed and comprehensive vision that God gives to his chosen leader. This is not a general promise of support nor is it a specific direction for one particular battle. Instead, the full extent of Joshua's achievements are anticipated in some detail as many wars and other activities are envisioned by this opening charge. Thus the primary focus for a leader in this text is that of a vision that can command the full talents and career of the warrior and also provide a realizeable goal.
III. Empowerment
The next section raises the question of the source of power and authority for the leader. Whence is this to come? As can be seen by the vv. 5b-9 it has its basis as the leader is able to draw upon the resources of faith that provide for a commitment that is larger than his or her own life. As portrayed in this text the faith comes from within the person, but it also has an objective source outside the individual as God demonstrates.
I will never leave you nor forsake you. “Be strong and courageous, because you will lead these people to inherit the land I swore to their forefathers to give them. Be strong and very courageous. Be careful to obey all the law my servant Moses gave you; do not turn from it to the right or to the left, that you may be successful wherever you go. Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it. Then you will be prosperous and successful. Have I not commanded you? Be strong and courageous. Do not be terrified; do not be discouraged, for the LORD your God will be with you wherever you go.”
It is not possible to read this text without being impressed by the threefold repetition of the charge, "be strong and courageous," Hebrew ∆azaq we˝emÅç (chazaq we-'emats) This charge occurs frequently in the biblical text. Some suggest that this expression identifies an installation genre in the Bible in which a new ruler is established in power. Although it is sometimes used in leadership contexts, such as here and in David's exhortation to Solomon to build the Temple (1 Chron. 22: 13; 28: 20), on other occasions it appears in contexts unrelated to the installation of a leader. For example, Hezekiah charges the citizens of Jerusalem to withstand the Assyrian attack (2 Chron. 32: 7). Thus McCarthy (1971) and Rowlett (1996) are correct to question the identification of this genre. Instead, the emphasis is upon divine presence and support for those who are commissioned to undertake a major task. Ethically, this is the basis for absolute confidence and resolve in the task ahead. There is no doubt in the mind of the leader and there is the certain promise of support and aid from the deity.
In v. 6 the command to be strong and courageous is tied with the instruction or torah of Moses. In its present context, this first and foremost refers to the law just given in the preceding book of Deuteronomy. The close parallels with Deuteronomy that already have been noted in this text support this conclusion. In addition, there is a close literary connection between vv. 6-9 and the references both to the law of Moses as well as the promise of God presence (Hess 1996: 73):
Vv. 7-9 form a special instruction to Joshua in light of the charge given to him in v. 6. He is to "be strong and very courageous" in order to lead the Israelites into their land. By itself, this could be interpreted as a charge to Joshua to prepare for military leadership. However, vv. 7-9 reveal that he cannot do this without obedience to the law of Moses. Unless Joshua makes meditation upon and obedience to God's law his first priority, his task of leadership will fail (cf. Ps. 1:1-3). This is made clear by (1) the position of the two commands to "be strong and very courageous" in vv. 6 and 7; (2) the clauses of result at the end of vv. 7 and 8 which both promise success in his mission (i.e. "wherever you go" and "you will be prosperous and successful"); and (3) the threefold mention of the law of Moses in these verses ("the law" hattôrâ (hattorah), "the Book of the Law" s‰per hattôrâ (sepher hattorah), and "everything written in it" hakkÅtûb bô [hakkatub bo]).
This carefully structured section is further developed by the overall appearance of a literary chiasm or envelope that connects the whole of the vv. 5b - 9:
A (5) As I was with Moses, so I will be with you; I will never leave you nor forsake you.
B (6) Be strong and courageous…
B (7) Be strong and very courageous…
C obey all the law…
C (8) this Book of the law…
C' everything written in it…
B' (9) Be strong and courageous
A' …the LORD your God will be with you wherever you go.
Some scholars have argued that vv. 6-8 or part of them are later additions to a text that originally had nothing to do with the law of Moses (see Rowlett 1996: 137-141 and review of the literature there). However, this developed literary structure suggests that the final form of the text is well integrated into the vv. 5b - 9 and therefore caution should be exercised in assumptions about literary editorial sources behind the present text.
This structure reveals a key concern in the responsibilities that Joshua is given in the second half of the divine charge. On the one hand, Joshua must make meditation upon the book of the law a chief concern of his. From this source he will draw the precepts by which to guide his life. However, notice that the outer enveloped of this construction. It is concerned with the promise of divine presence. In vv. 2-5 Joshua was promised many things. In vv. 5b-9 he is promised only one thing, God's presence. Therefore, the secret of Joshua's success as a leader does not depend upon his ability to meditate upon God's instruction. Instead, the secret is found in the presence of God to enable him to meditate upon the word and thereby find the resources with which to live.
Thus the ethics of leadership in vv. 1-9 of the first chapter of Joshua include the following: (1) there must be a need for leadership as demonstrated through a vacuum in that leadership; (2) the leader must have a clear and compelling vision or goal that is sufficiently comprehensive to carry through the task that needs to be done; and (3) there must be an inner source for the leader to draw upon that will provide the courage and confidence without which success cannot be achieved. This last point may and often does take the find its source in sacred literature and instruction. However, in the book of Joshua this alone is not what is promised. Here the presence of God also becomes a key part of the picture. Thus the leader receives divine instruction and support that guarantees the success of the task.
It is perhaps significant that the Christian Bible does not limit to the book of Joshua the sense of God's presence as an essential preparation for leadership or other forms of service. This theme continues into the New Testament where Jesus Christ, at the point of his departure from the earth, charges his disciples with the extension of God's kingdom and promises them his presence as the basis for the success of their mission. So one may read in Matt. 28: 18-20 (cf. Mark 16: 15; Acts 1: 8):
Then Jesus came to them and said, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.”
IV. Further Developments of the Leadership Model
It is important to be aware that the ethical principles of leadership as suggested by the first chapter of Joshua do not remain in a rarified state of theory and spiritual insight. There is evidence in the remaining verses of chapter 1 that Joshua implemented his role as leader with several extremely practical activities that demonstrated an ability to lead and brought potentially reluctant members of his army under his control.
In vv. 10-11 Joshua demonstrates the principle of delegation of authority as he commands the civil officers of Israel to convey his instructions throughout the camp.
So Joshua ordered the officers of the people: “Go through the camp and tell the people, ‘Get your supplies ready. Three days from now you will cross the Jordan here to go in and take possession of the land the LORD your God is giving you for your own.
These officers, who functioned as foremen earlier in the biblical text (Exod. 5: 6-19), here assist in organizing the people and preparing them for the move across the Jordan River, a major exercise involving not only warriors but also priests and families. Joshua's ability to organize this, including the allowance of a period of several days to prepare to move, is key for the success of crossing the Jordan River and the subsequent maneuvers in Canaan. The practical translation of the ethics of leadership includes the ability to pass on to others the vision and confidence of the goal and its attainment. Here the leader guides his forces in organizing and preparing them for the task ahead. He thus demonstrates a practical knowledge of organization and administration in keeping with the greater goal.
Vv. 12-18 provide a key element of leadership in the story of Joshua.
But to the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Joshua said, “Remember the command that Moses the servant of the LORD gave you: ‘The LORD your God is giving you rest and has granted you this land.’ Your wives, your children and your livestock may stay in the land that Moses gave you east of the Jordan, but all your fighting men, fully armed, must cross over ahead of your brothers. You are to help your brothers until the LORD gives them rest, as he has done for you, and until they too have taken possession of the land that the LORD your God is giving them. After that, you may go back and occupy your own land, which Moses the servant of the LORD gave you east of the Jordan toward the sunrise.” Then they answered Joshua, “Whatever you have commanded us we will do, and wherever you send us we will go. Just as we fully obeyed Moses, so we will obey you. Only may the LORD your God be with you as he was with Moses. Whoever rebels against your word and does not obey your words, whatever you may command them, will be put to death. Only be strong and courageous!”
As already suggested, the warriors who already have been given their land east of the Jordan River (Deuteronomy 3) needed to be brought into line so that they would participate in the conquest of the remainder of the land and would preserve the unity of Israel that God demanded and that is essential to any leadership operation or success. Joshua saw that the warriors of these tribes, Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh, had the least to gain by throwing their lot in with the remainder of Israel and continuing the dangerous campaign west of the Jordan. They already had their land and inheritance, and their families were secure. Why should they risk their lives?
Thus these verses demonstrate how Joshua identified the key problem in the recognition of his position as leader and successor to Moses. He found the most efficient solution to this problem of gaining the loyalty of these two and a half tribes by seeking from them a response in which they would promise to obey Joshua as they had obeyed Moses. Joshua succeeded by playing his "trump card." He quoted a passage from Deut. 3: 18-20 in which Moses gives these tribes their inheritance east of the Jordan on the condition that they assist with the taking of the land west of the Jordan. They made a promise to Moses to follow through with this activity and now Joshua elicits a similar promise of loyalty from them.
There is evidence from the fourteenth century B.C. Amarna letters and from other Egyptian New Kingdom sources that, when one pharaoh of Egypt died and another was appointed as rule, he would send throughout his empire in Canaan to demand from the local city rulers an oath of loyalty to himself. Transition of leadership is always a precarious time. It is a time when rebels and upstarts are most likely to attempt to overthrow the existing order because the certainty of leadership is not secure. Therefore, the brilliance of applied leadership is demonstrated in the last section of Joshua 1 as the those least likely to be loyal are identified, reminded of their earlier commitments, and have elicited from themselves an oath of loyal service to the new leader.
The remarkable ethical element of this procedure involves the commitment of Joshua to use persuasion and debate as a first step to gain loyalty. Despite the stronger force of the remaining tribes, military power is not the basis of Joshua's strategy. Instead, he uses the oath elicited by the former leader, Moses, as a starting point for his rhetorical appeal. This allows the tribes of Transjordan to respond willingly without duress and enables them to express their full and unreserved commitment to Joshua's leadership. Such wholehearted loyalty is the desire of every leader, and the ethical commitment to argument before the use of any force fully achieves the desired result.
Thus we find in this chapter an example of the leadership of a model figure in the biblical tradition. Without doubt there is an important emphasis upon the spiritual resources that such a leader must have. Nevertheless, there is also the recognition that such resources are of little value unless the leader either has or acquires both the experience of dealing with the issues of leading and the natural gifts of delegation, organization, communication, and the ability to elicit loyal support from subordinates.
Bibliography:
Hess, Richard S.
1996 Joshua. An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries. Leicester and Downers Grove: IVP.
1998 "Occurrences of Canaan in Late Bronze Age Archives of the West Semitic World," pp. 365-372 in Sh. Izre'el, I. Singer, and R. Zadok eds., Israel Oriental Studies 18: Past Links: Studies in the Languages and Cultures of the Ancient Near East (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1998).
1999 "Early Israel in Canaan: A Survey of Recent Evidence and Interpretations," pp. 492-518 in V. Philips Long ed., Israel's Past in Present Research: Essays on Ancient Israelite Historiography (Sources for Biblical and Theological Study 7; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns). Reprint of "Early Israel in Canaan: A Survey of Recent Evidence and Interpretations," Palestine Exploration Quarterly 126 (1993) 125-142.
Howard, David M., Jr.
1998 Joshua. The New American Commentary Volume 5. Nashville: Broadman.
McCarthy, Dennis J.
1971 "The Theology of Leadership in Joshua 1-9," Biblica 52: 165-175.
Nelson, Richard D.
1981 "Josiah in the Book of Joshua," Journal of Biblical Literature 100: 531-540.
1997 Joshua: A Commentary. Old Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. Hardback, xviii + 310 pp.
Rowlett, Lori L.
1996 Joshua and the Rhetoric of Violence: A New Historicist Analysis. JSOT Supplement 226. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Younger, Jr., K. Lawson
1990 Ancient Conquest Accounts: A Study in Ancient Near Eastern and Biblical History Writing. JSOT Supplement 98. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
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